KRAS is one of the most commonly mutated genes in human cancer. In the lung, mutations in the KRAS gene are found in approximately 25–30% of non-small cell lung cancers, making it the single most frequently altered driver gene in this disease, more common than EGFR mutations or ALK rearrangements. KRAS encodes a protein that …
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ALK (anaplastic lymphoma kinase) is a protein that plays a role in normal cell development. In healthy adult lung tissue, the ALK gene is essentially switched off. In approximately 3–7% of non-small cell lung cancers, a chromosomal rearrangement — a structural change in which a segment of DNA breaks and fuses to a different gene …
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EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor) is a protein found on the surface of cells that acts as a switch, turning on signals that tell the cell to grow and divide. In normal tissue, EGFR switches on and off in a controlled way. In some lung cancers, a mutation in the EGFR gene permanently locks the …
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BRCA1 and BRCA2 are genes that normally protect cells from becoming cancerous. Their job is to repair damaged DNA and keep cell division under control. When one of these genes carries a harmful mutation — a change that prevents the gene from working properly — that protective function is lost, and the risk of developing …
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A breast biopsy is a procedure in which a small amount of tissue is removed from the breast and sent to a pathology laboratory for examination. It is the only way to know for certain whether a breast abnormality is cancerous, precancerous, or benign. If you have received a breast biopsy pathology report, you may …
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A sentinel lymph node biopsy is a surgical procedure that removes one or two lymph nodes, most likely the first stop for cancer cells spreading from a tumour. The removed nodes are sent to a pathology laboratory where a pathologist examines them carefully under the microscope. The resulting pathology report tells your medical team whether …
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A transurethral resection of bladder tumour, almost always referred to by its acronym TURBT, is both the most common procedure used to diagnose bladder cancer and, for many patients, the first step in treating it. After a TURBT, the tissue removed is sent to a pathology laboratory, where a pathologist examines it under the microscope …
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A bone marrow biopsy is one of the most informative tests in medicine for conditions affecting the blood and immune system. If you have received a bone marrow biopsy report, you may be facing a diagnosis of leukemia, lymphoma, myeloma, anemia, or another blood disorder — or your doctor may still be working out what …
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Non-ampullary adenocarcinoma of the duodenum is a type of cancer that starts in the gland-forming cells that line the inside surface of the duodenum, which is the first part of the small intestine located just beyond the stomach. The duodenum plays an important role in digestion by mixing food with stomach acid, bile, and pancreatic …
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A serous cystadenoma is a benign (non-cancerous) tumor of the pancreas. It is made up of many small, fluid-filled spaces called cysts, lined by cells that contain a natural sugar called glycogen. Most serous cystadenomas grow slowly, cause no symptoms, and are found by chance during imaging done for another reason. A serous cystadenoma is …
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