PTEN (short for phosphatase and tensin homolog) is a gene that helps control how cells grow and divide. It is called a tumor suppressor gene because it helps prevent cells from growing out of control. The PTEN gene makes a protein that is found in most tissues in the body, where it plays a key …
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IDH1 and IDH2 are genes that provide instructions for making proteins called isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 and 2. These proteins help cells produce energy by participating in a normal chemical process that converts one molecule (isocitrate) into another (α-ketoglutarate), a process essential for many cellular functions. These proteins also help regulate the balance of other molecules …
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Spindle cell lesion is a term pathologists use to describe a group of spindle-shaped cells seen under the microscope. These cells are long and thin, often described as cigar-shaped or tapered at the ends, and are commonly found in connective tissues like muscle, fibrous tissue, and the lining of blood vessels. This term is often …
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Atypical fibroxanthoma (AFX) is a rare skin tumour that typically affects older adults with sun-damaged skin. It most often develops in areas exposed to long-term ultraviolet (UV) light, such as the scalp, face, or ears. Although AFX can appear concerning under the microscope, it typically behaves in a non-aggressive (low-grade) manner when strict diagnostic criteria …
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Pleomorphic dermal sarcoma (PDS) is a rare type of skin cancer that usually affects older adults, especially those with extensive sun damage on their skin. It most often appears on the scalp or face, areas that have received a lot of ultraviolet (UV) exposure over time. PDS is considered related to another tumour called atypical …
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Sarcomatoid carcinoma is a type of cancer that contains features of both carcinoma and sarcoma. Carcinomas are cancers that start in epithelial cells, which line the surface of organs, while sarcomas are cancers that start in mesenchymal cells, such as those found in connective tissue, bone, or muscle. In sarcomatoid carcinoma, the tumour starts as …
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Keratosis is a word pathologists use to describe an increased amount of keratin on the surface of squamous epithelium, the type of tissue that lines the skin, mouth, throat, esophagus, anus, cervix, and other body surfaces. Keratin is a tough, protective protein made by squamous cells. It forms the outermost layer of the skin and …
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Caldesmon is a protein found inside cells that helps control how smooth muscle contracts and relaxes. Smooth muscle is found in many parts of the body, including the walls of blood vessels, intestines, uterus, and airways. Caldesmon works by interacting with other proteins—such as actin, tropomyosin, and calmodulin—to regulate muscle function. By controlling when muscles …
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JAK2 (Janus kinase 2) is a gene that provides instructions for making a protein involved in how cells grow, divide, and respond to signals from the immune system. JAK2 is part of a family of related genes that also includes JAK1, JAK3, and TYK2. These genes all produce proteins that help cells communicate using a …
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