Mismatch repair (MMR) and microsatellite instability (MSI) testing tell doctors whether the DNA repair system inside a cancer is working properly. When that system breaks down, cancer cells accumulate many genetic errors, and those errors are exactly what can make the cancer respond to a powerful type of treatment called immunotherapy. The same test matters …
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PD-L1 (programmed death-ligand 1) is a protein that some cancer cells use to hide from the immune system. Testing for PD-L1 is one of the most important biomarkers in advanced cancer of the stomach (gastric cancer) and the gastroesophageal junction (the area where the esophagus meets the stomach), because the result helps determine whether immunotherapy …
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The androgen receptor (AR) is a protein inside prostate cells that receives signals from male hormones called androgens, the most important of which is testosterone. These signals tell prostate cells to grow and divide. Almost all prostate cancers depend on this androgen signal to grow, which is why treatments that lower androgen levels or block …
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Mismatch repair (MMR) and microsatellite instability (MSI) testing tell your doctor whether the DNA repair system inside a prostate cancer is working normally or has broken down. When that repair system fails, cancer cells accumulate many genetic errors, and those errors can make them sensitive to a type of treatment called immunotherapy. The same test …
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Parathyroid carcinoma is a rare cancer of the parathyroid gland. The parathyroid glands are small endocrine organs in the front of the neck that produce parathyroid hormone, which helps regulate blood calcium levels. Parathyroid carcinoma develops when cells in one of these glands grow uncontrollably and invade nearby tissue or spread to other parts of …
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An atypical parathyroid tumor (APT) is an unusual growth of the parathyroid gland. It shows some microscopic features that raise concern for cancer, but does not meet all the criteria needed to diagnose parathyroid carcinoma. For this reason, pathologists describe an atypical parathyroid tumor as a neoplasm of uncertain malignant potential — a growth that …
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Stratified mucin producing intraepithelial lesion, usually abbreviated as SMILE, is a rare precancerous condition of the cervix caused by infection with human papillomavirus (HPV). It is described as having features of both squamous cells (flat cells that line the outer surface of the cervix) and glandular cells (mucus-producing cells that line the inside of the …
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Clear cell carcinoma is a rare type of cervical cancer that develops from glandular cells in the cervix. It is called “clear cell” because the cancer cells often have pale or transparent-looking cytoplasm (the body of the cell that surrounds the nucleus) when viewed under the microscope. Clear cell carcinoma accounts for approximately 3 to …
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The liver panel — sometimes called liver function tests, liver enzymes, or LFTs — is a group of blood tests used to assess how well your liver is working and whether the liver is injured or inflamed. The tests in a liver panel overlap substantially with those in a comprehensive metabolic panel (CMP), but a dedicated liver …
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A cemento-ossifying fibroma (COF) is a noncancerous tumor that develops within the bones of the jaw, most often the mandible (lower jaw), and most often near the molar and premolar teeth. It is made up of fibrous tissue mixed with hard tissue that resembles either bone or cementum (the thin layer of mineralized tissue that …
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