PD-L1 (Programmed Death-Ligand 1) is a protein found on the surface of normal, healthy cells and some cancer cells. It is called an immune checkpoint protein because it acts to turn down the activity of immune cells called T cells which normally detect abnormal cells such as cancer cells and remove them from the body. Cancer …
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In pathology, the term low grade describes cells that look abnormal under the microscope but still share some features with normal, healthy cells. To determine if cells are low grade, pathologists compare them to the normal cells typically found in the same part of the body. Low grade is different from high grade, which describes cells that …
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What does high grade mean? In pathology, high grade is used to describe cells that look very abnormal when examined under the microscope. In order to determine if a group of cells are high grade, pathologists typically compare the abnormal-looking cells to the cells normally found in that part of the body. The term high …
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In pathology, the term cytologic atypia describes cells that look abnormal when examined under a microscope. Cells may be described as showing cytologic atypia because of their shape, size, or colour. These changes can affect the cytoplasm (body) of the cell or the nucleus (the part of the cell that holds the genetic material). Does …
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What are the interstitial cells of Cajal? Interstitial cells of Cajal are specialized cells that are normally found throughout the gastrointestinal tract, from the esophagus to the rectum. These cells receive signals from the nervous system and in turn, cause alternating contraction and relaxation of the muscular wall helping to move food through the gastrointestinal …
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What is MDM2? MDM2 is a gene that promotes cell division (the creation of new cells). Normal cells and those in non-cancerous tumours have two copies of the MDM2 gene. In contrast, cancerous tumours such as atypical lipomatous tumour/well differentiated liposarcoma have more than two copies of the MDM2 gene. How do pathologists test for …
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Tubal metaplasia is a non-cancerous change where the cells normally found in an organ or tissue are replaced by those normally found in the fallopian tube. Like the cells normally found in the fallopian tube, the new cells often have small hair-like projections called cilia. This change is commonly found in the ovary, endometrium, cervix, …
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The uterus is a pear-shaped hollow organ found in the female pelvis between the rectum (the end of the large bowel) and the urinary bladder. The upper part (fundus) is attached to the fallopian tubes while the lower part is connected to the vagina through the uterine cervix. The walls of the uterus are made …
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In pathology, the term proximal is used to describe the part of a tissue closest to the midline of the body. For example, the colon is a long tube that starts at the end of the small bowel and ends at the anal canal. The colon is divided into six parts: cecum, ascending colon, transverse colon, …
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In pathology, well differentiated is a term used to describe how cancer cells look under a microscope. When cells are well differentiated, they closely resemble normal cells from the tissue where the tumour started. These cells often have an organized structure and similar shape and size to healthy cells, which can mean they behave more …
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