PD-L1 (Programmed Death-Ligand 1) is a protein found on the surface of many normal cells and certain cancer cells. It is part of a natural system in the body called an immune checkpoint, which helps regulate your immune system and prevents it from becoming overactive. Specifically, PD-L1 interacts with another protein called PD-1, which is …
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In pathology, the term low grade describes cells that look abnormal under the microscope but still share some features with normal, healthy cells. To determine if cells are low grade, pathologists compare them to the normal cells typically found in the same part of the body. Low grade is different from high grade, which describes cells that …
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In pathology, cytologic atypia describes cells that look abnormal when examined under a microscope. Cells may show cytologic atypia because of their shape, size, or colour. These changes can affect the cytoplasm (body) of the cell or the nucleus (the part of the cell that holds the genetic material). Does cytologic atypia mean the cells …
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What are the interstitial cells of Cajal? Interstitial cells of Cajal are specialized cells that are normally found throughout the gastrointestinal tract, from the esophagus to the rectum. These cells receive signals from the nervous system and in turn, cause alternating contraction and relaxation of the muscular wall helping to move food through the gastrointestinal …
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What is MDM2? MDM2 is a gene that promotes cell division (the creation of new cells). Normal cells and those in non-cancerous tumours have two copies of the MDM2 gene. In contrast, cancerous tumours such as atypical lipomatous tumour/well differentiated liposarcoma have more than two copies of the MDM2 gene. How do pathologists test for …
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Tubal metaplasia is a non-cancerous change where the cells normally found in an organ or tissue are replaced by those normally found in the fallopian tube. Like the cells normally found in the fallopian tube, the new cells often have small hair-like projections called cilia. This change is commonly found in the ovary, endometrium, cervix, …
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The uterus is a pear-shaped hollow organ found in the female pelvis between the rectum (the end of the large bowel) and the urinary bladder. The upper part (fundus) is attached to the fallopian tubes while the lower part is connected to the vagina through the uterine cervix. The walls of the uterus are made …
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In pathology, the term proximal describes the part of a tissue or organ closest to the center (midline) of the body. Doctors and pathologists use this term to explain the location of tumours, lesions, or specific areas within an organ. For example, the colon (large intestine) is a long tube divided into six sections: the …
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In pathology, well differentiated is a term used to describe how tumor cells look when examined under a microscope. Tumor cells described as well differentiated closely resemble the normal, healthy cells of the tissue from which the tumor started. These cells typically appear organized, uniform in size and shape, and maintain many features of their …
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In pathology, the term pleomorphic is used to describe cells that appear very different from each other when viewed under a microscope. Pleomorphic cells vary significantly in size, shape, and colour. Although pathologists may describe the whole cell as pleomorphic, they usually focus on the appearance of the cell’s nucleus (the part containing genetic material …
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