Mismatch repair (MMR) and microsatellite instability (MSI) testing are among the most important biomarker tests performed on colorectal cancers. Every colorectal cancer — whether found on a biopsy or in a surgical specimen — should be tested for this biomarker. The results tell your doctor whether your cancer’s DNA repair system is working normally or …
Read More »
PD-L1 (programmed death-ligand 1) is a protein found on the surface of cells — including cancer cells and immune cells within tumours — that acts as a brake on the immune system. Under normal circumstances, PD-L1 helps prevent the immune system from attacking healthy tissue by binding to a receptor called PD-1 on T cells, …
Read More »
NTRK fusions are chromosomal rearrangements that fuse one of three genes — NTRK1, NTRK2, or NTRK3 — to a partner gene, producing an abnormal fusion protein that continuously drives cancer cell growth. The NTRK genes normally encode a family of receptor proteins called tropomyosin receptor kinases (TRK A, B, and C), which play important roles …
Read More »
BRAF is a gene that encodes a protein kinase — an enzyme that acts as a relay in a signalling chain called the MAPK pathway, which controls cell growth and division. In normal cells, BRAF passes signals from activated surface receptors (including RAS proteins) downstream to the rest of the cell in a tightly regulated …
Read More »
RET is a gene that encodes a receptor protein involved in signalling pathways that regulate cell growth, survival, and differentiation during normal development. In healthy adult lung tissue, RET activity is minimal. In approximately 1–2% of non-small cell lung cancers, a chromosomal rearrangement fuses the RET gene to a partner gene, creating an abnormal fusion …
Read More »
MET (also called c-MET or HGFR — hepatocyte growth factor receptor) is a protein found on the surface of cells that receives signals from a molecule called hepatocyte growth factor (HGF). When HGF binds to MET, it activates signalling pathways that promote cell growth, survival, and movement — processes that are tightly regulated in normal …
Read More »
ROS1 is a gene that encodes a receptor protein involved in signalling pathways that regulate cell growth and survival. In healthy adult lung tissue, ROS1 is essentially inactive. In approximately 1–2% of non-small cell lung cancers, a chromosomal rearrangement fuses the ROS1 gene to a partner gene, creating an abnormal fusion protein that is permanently …
Read More »
KRAS is one of the most commonly mutated genes in human cancer. In the lung, mutations in the KRAS gene are found in approximately 25–30% of non-small cell lung cancers, making it the single most frequently altered driver gene in this disease, more common than EGFR mutations or ALK rearrangements. KRAS encodes a protein that …
Read More »
ALK (anaplastic lymphoma kinase) is a protein that plays a role in normal cell development. In healthy adult lung tissue, the ALK gene is essentially switched off. In approximately 3–7% of non-small cell lung cancers, a chromosomal rearrangement — a structural change in which a segment of DNA breaks and fuses to a different gene …
Read More »
EGFR (epidermal growth factor receptor) is a protein found on the surface of cells that acts as a switch, turning on signals that tell the cell to grow and divide. In normal tissue, EGFR switches on and off in a controlled way. In some lung cancers, a mutation in the EGFR gene permanently locks the …
Read More »
