BRCA1 and BRCA2 are genes that normally protect cells from becoming cancerous. Their job is to repair damaged DNA and keep cell division under control. When one of these genes carries a harmful mutation — a change that prevents the gene from working properly — that protective function is lost, and the risk of developing …
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Ki-67 is a protein found inside cells that are actively dividing. Because cancer cells divide more frequently than normal cells, measuring Ki-67 gives pathologists a way to estimate how quickly a breast cancer is growing. The result is expressed as a percentage — the proportion of cancer cells in active division at the time the …
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HER2 (human epidermal growth factor receptor 2) is a protein found on the surface of cells that acts like an antenna, receiving signals that tell the cell to grow and divide. In normal breast tissue, HER2 is present in small amounts and plays a controlled role in cell growth. In some breast cancers, the gene …
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The estrogen receptor (ER) and progesterone receptor (PR) are proteins found inside breast cancer cells that respond to the hormones estrogen and progesterone. When a breast cancer test is positive for these receptors, it means the cancer cells are using hormones as fuel to grow. This information is one of the most important results on …
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A radical cystectomy is the surgical removal of the entire bladder and the surrounding tissues and lymph nodes. It is the standard treatment for muscle-invasive bladder cancer and for certain cases of high-risk non-muscle-invasive bladder cancer that have not responded to other treatments. After the operation, the removed tissue is sent to a pathology laboratory …
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A breast biopsy is a procedure in which a small amount of tissue is removed from the breast and sent to a pathology laboratory for examination. It is the only way to know for certain whether a breast abnormality is cancerous, precancerous, or benign. If you have received a breast biopsy pathology report, you may …
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A sentinel lymph node biopsy is a surgical procedure that removes one or two lymph nodes, most likely the first stop for cancer cells spreading from a tumour. The removed nodes are sent to a pathology laboratory where a pathologist examines them carefully under the microscope. The resulting pathology report tells your medical team whether …
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A colonoscopy is the most common procedure for examining the large intestine, which includes the colon and rectum. During a colonoscopy, your doctor may remove tissue samples or entire growths from the lining of the colon and send them to a pathology laboratory for examination. The resulting pathology report describes what was found and can …
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A transurethral resection of bladder tumour, almost always referred to by its acronym TURBT, is both the most common procedure used to diagnose bladder cancer and, for many patients, the first step in treating it. After a TURBT, the tissue removed is sent to a pathology laboratory, where a pathologist examines it under the microscope …
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A bone marrow biopsy is one of the most informative tests in medicine for conditions affecting the blood and immune system. If you have received a bone marrow biopsy report, you may be facing a diagnosis of leukemia, lymphoma, myeloma, anemia, or another blood disorder — or your doctor may still be working out what …
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